MICAH L. MARTIN
Copyright Micah Martin 2001
This study primarily seeks to examine the relationship between body
modification and religiosity/spirituality. Secondarily, it addresses the
issues of non-mainstream forms of body modification and social acceptance.
There were forty-one participants, which included 20 males and 20 females;
one participant did not give their gender. Ages ranged from 15 to
69 years with an average age of 26.90 (SD = 11.39). Each participant
was given a packet containing questions regarding tattoos, piercings, religiosity,
and spirituality, as well as the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith
Scale, and the Religious Orientation Scale. It was found that those not
having tattoos were more likely to practice a religion, with X2 (1, N =
35) = 7.20, p < .05. It was also found that non-mainstream body
modification was related to a greater number of piercings with F(1, 34)
= 17.65, p < .0001. Implications and suggestions for future research
are given.
Body modification involves altering one’s physical appearance and, according to James Myers (1992), includes cosmetics, coiffure, ornamentation, adornment, tattooing, scarification, piercing, cutting, branding, and other procedures done mostly for aesthetic reasons. The current study focuses mostly on tattooing and piercing as a means of altering one’s physical appearance. The word tattoo comes from the Tahitian term tatu, and is defined as “an indelible mark or figure fixed upon the body by the insertion of pigment under the skin or by the production of scars” (Webster’s Dictionary, 1993, as cited in Greif & Hewitt, 1999). Unless otherwise noted, the word tattoo will from henceforth refer only to a mark or figure, not a scar. Piercing refers to “the insertion of a needle into various areas of the body to create an opening through which decorative ornaments such as jewelry may be worn” (Greif & Hewitt, 1998 as cited in Greif & Hewitt, 1999).
Today tattooing is most commonly done by professional tattoo artists in a studio, using an electrical device that rapidly injects a uniform series of punctures into the dermal layer of skin (Greif & Hewitt, 1998, as cited in Greif & Hewitt, 1999). Piercing is usually done, according to Weir (2001) in either tattoo or beauty parlors using either a spring-loaded ear piercing gun or piercing needles. These needles vary from 6 to 18 gauge.
Past research involving body modification has focused on reasons that people choose to modify their bodies, as well as correlations between body modification and other factors such as risk-taking behavior. Greif and Hewitt (1999) found that over half of the college students they studied reported having more than five drinks of alcohol weekly or monthly. They also found that 39% of those students had used recreational drugs, and 24% smoked cigarettes daily. Only five participants of 766 reported never having sexual intercourse.
Myers (1992) identified several reasons for which individuals decide to modify their bodies. They include reasons related to sexual enhancement, pain, affiliation, aesthetics, trust/loyalty, religion/mysticism, and shock value. Shannon Bell (1999) noted that people tattoo and/or pierce their bodies to separate themselves from the mainstream culture or to identify themselves as belonging to a certain subculture. She further noted that people tattoo to honor their family members or lovers, display religious beliefs, or show their association with the military.
While religiosity and spirituality appear to be interchangeable terms,
and indeed have several overlapping features, they also have distinct features.
Hill, Pargament, Swyers, Gorsuch, McCullough, Hood, & Baumeister established
certain criteria for both spirituality and religiousness, or what this
study refers to as religiosity. For the purposes of this study, these
definitions of religiosity and spirituality will be used. The Criterion
for Spirituality is:
(A.) The feelings thoughts, experiences, and behaviors that arise from a search for the sacred. The term search refers to attempts to identify, articulate, maintain, or transform. The sacred refers to a divine being or Ultimate Reality or Ultimate Truth as perceived by the individual.
The Criterion for Religiousness include the above and/or:
(B.) A search or quest for non-sacred goals (such as identity, belongingness, meaning, health, or wellness) in a context that has as its primary goal the facilitation of (A)
and(C.) The means and methods (e.g. rituals or prescribed behaviors) of the search that receive validation and support from within an identifiable group of people
Miller and Thoresen (1999, as cited in Thoresen, Harris, & Oman,
2001) express similar concepts, stating:
The concept of religion is often viewed as a societal phenomenon, involving social institutions with rules, rituals, covenants, and formal procedures. By contrast, a typical view of spirituality refers to the individual’s personal experience, commonly seen as connected to some formal religion but increasingly viewed as not necessarily associated with any organized religion.
Although there has been little research done involving body modification and religiosity/spirituality, past research has shown that the two seem to be related. It has been noted that both the decision to modify one’s body, and religiosity/spirituality are influenced by society and culture (Bell, 1999; Myers, 1992). Drews, Allison, and Probst (2000) found that individuals with tattoos generally rated themselves as less religious than those without tattoos. Still, further research is needed to determine the relationship between body modification and religiosity/spirituality.
This study seeks to examine the relationship between body modification and religiosity/spirituality. In studying religiosity and spirituality there are the potential pitfalls of not recognizing the distinctiveness of these two terms and of polarizing them to the extent that they are barely related (Hill, Pargament, Swyers, Gorsuch, McCullough, Hood, & Baumeister, 1998). Therefore, this study examines both distinctly, seeking primarily to find whether individuals that participate in body modification are more likely to be spiritual or religious
Within this overall topic of religion lie the issues of extrinsic and
intrinsic religiosity. Individuals that are extrinsically religious
practice religion because it serves other, more important interests.
Allport and Ross (1967) state that extrinsic values are always instrumental
and utilitarian. They state that the extrinsic type turns to God,
but without turning away from self.
Intrinsically oriented individuals value religion as ultimately significant
and seek to bring all other aspects of their life in line with that religion.
These individuals are said to “live” their religion. They have “embraced
a creed” and seek to “internalize it and follow it daily (Allport &
Ross, 1967).
Secondarily, this study seeks to answer the question of whether individuals
that participate in tattooing and body piercing are more likely to participate
in forms of body modification that are even less mainstream, such as cutting,
branding, or scarring? While these forms of body modification are
considered by those that participate in them to simply be a form of self-expression
(Myers, 1992), they are considered by some to be forms of self-mutilative
behavior (Strong, 1998). Ceniceros, Brown, and Swartz found that
psychiatric patients with tattoos and piercings were more involved in self-mutilative
behaviors than patients without tattoos and piercings. While non-mainstream
forms of body-modification are not necessarily psychopathic in nature,
it cannot be assumed, without further research, that there is no relation
between body modification and self-mutilative behaviors, especially since
what is considered art by some is considered self-mutilation by others
(Strong, 1998).
If, indeed, tattoos and/or piercings are related to self-mutilation, per se, could they also be related to suicide, or suicidal tendencies or thoughts? While experts, such as Strong (1998) contend that self-mutilation is not the same as a suicide attempt, exceptions to this general rule are possible. One study by Dhossche, Snell, and Larder (2000) found support for the possibility of tattoos being a marker for risk of suicide. It was noted, however, that the tendency toward impulsive/aggressive behavior might influence both the decision to tattoo and the decision to commit suicide.
Finally, this study seeks to find whether individuals are more accepting of others that look similar to themselves. From the time that the punks entered the British scene in 1976 to the present time in America, body modifiers have been viewed by many in a negative light (Liotard, 2001).) It has been noted that tattoos have often been associated with men in the military, bikers, juvenile gang members, prostitutes, criminals and convicts, some trades, and persons of low economic status (Edgerton & Dingman, 1963, as cited in Drews, Allison, & Probst, 2000). Do these stereotypes still exist in society?
As this study examines both body modification and religiosity/spirituality, it should be noted that the latter can play a part in this question of acceptance. Allport (1967) found that church-attenders who are intrinsically motivated are, on average, less prejudice than non-attenders, while church-attenders who are extrinsically motivated are, on average, more prejudice than non-attenders.
It was hypothesized that individuals that participate in body modification
are more likely to be spiritual than religious. It was also hypothesized
that individuals that participate in tattooing and body piercing are more
likely to participate in forms of body modification that are even less
mainstream, but that this participation in less mainstream forms of body
modification would correlate negatively with both religiosity and spirituality.
Furthermore it was predicted that individuals would be more accepting of
others that look similar to themselves, but that this would correlate negatively
with both religiosity and spirituality.
Method
Participants
Forty-one individuals agreed to participate in the current study. The sample consisted of 20 males and 20 females; one participant did not give their gender. Ages ranged from 15 to 69 years with an average age of 26.90 (SD = 11.39). Of the 41 participants, 34 were white, 1 was black, and 3 were of other racial/ethnic backgrounds. There were 4 experimental conditions, with 10 participants in all but one condition, in which case there were 11. Only two individuals that were approached refused the questionnaire packet.
The participants were approached at either local tattoo parlors—places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are more likely to be found, or a local mall or coffee shop—places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are less likely to be found. Participants signed informed consent forms and were treated in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (American Psychological Association, 1992).
Materials
Each participant was given a packet within which were several different scales and questionnaires. It also contained items requesting demographic information from the participant. The subsections of the packet were as follows:
Tattoos. Each packet contained a section with questions about tattoos, such as: “Do you currently have any tattoos?” “Where are (were) your tattoos located?” “For what reasons did you get your tattoos?” Most questions included answer choices, from which participants could select all that applied.
Piercings. Each packet contained a section with questions about piercings, such as: “Do you currently have any piercings?” “Where are (were) your piercings located?” “For what reasons did you get your piercings?” Most questions were followed by answer choices, from which participants could select all that applied.
Religiosity and Spirituality. This section gave the previously listed definitions of spirituality and religiosity (Hill, Pargament, Swyers, Gorsuch, McCullough, Hood, & Baumeister, 1998) and then asked individuals if they considered themselves spiritual, religious, both or neither. Following were selected items from the General Social Survey (GSS; The National Opinion Research Center, 1972-2000), e.g. “What is your religious preference?” and “How often do you attend religious services?” Each question was followed by answer choices, from which participants could select the one that applied.
The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Scale. This scale (SCSORFS; Plante & Boccacini, 1997) contained 10 items. Each was a statement designed to measure their strength of religious faith, e.g. “My religious faith is extremely important to me,” and “My faith impacts many of my decisions.” Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a five-option response scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree).
Religious Orientation Scale. This scale (Allport & Ross, 1967) contains items measuring both extrinsic and intrinsic religiosity. Individuals that are extrinsically religious practice religion because it serves other, more important interests. Intrinsically oriented individuals value religion as ultimately significant and seek to bring all other aspects of their life in line with that religion. A sample item measuring extrinsic religiosity follows: “What religion offers me most is comfort when sorrows and misfortune strike. a.) I definitely disagree, b.) I tend to disagree, c.) I tend to agree, d.) I definitely agree.” A sample item measuring intrinsic religiosity follows: “I try hard to carry my religion over into all my other dealings in life. a.) I definitely disagree, b.) I tend to disagree, c.) I tend to agree, d.) I definitely agree.” For all questions, a was assigned a point value of 1, b was assigned a point value of 2, c was assigned a point value of 4, and d was assigned a point value of 5. Higher scores indicated higher levels of the respective categories being measured.
Procedure
This experiment took place over a period of one month. There were four experimental conditions, with 10 participants in all but one condition, in which case there were 11. To find out whether individuals are more accepting of others that look similar to themselves, the researcher’s appearance served as one independent variable. Half of the participants were approached by the researcher while the researcher had a fake nose ring. The experiment used a 2 x 2 factorial between-groups design. There were two independent variables: the researcher’s appearance, and the type of location at which participants were approached. There were two levels of the researcher’s appearance: the researcher with a fake nose ring, and the researcher without a fake nose ring. There were two levels of the type of location: places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are more likely to be found—such as tattoo parlors, and places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are less likely to be found—such as coffee shops and malls.
The researcher asked individuals at either tattoo parlors or coffee shops/malls to complete the questionnaire. When approaching individuals, the researcher used a script (see Appendix A). Participants signed informed consent forms before completing the questionnaire. The questionnaire took approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete.
It was hypothesized that individuals that participate in body modification are likely to be more spiritual than religious. It was also hypothesized that individuals that participate in tattooing and/or body piercing are more likely to participate in forms of body modification that are even less mainstream, but that this participation in less mainstream forms of body modification would correlate negatively with both religiosity and spirituality. Furthermore it was predicted that individuals would be more accepting of others that look similar to themselves, but that this would correlate negatively with both religiosity and spirituality.
The responses to the questionnaires were analyzed using chi-squares, two-way ANOVA’s and post hoc tests, when necessary.
Results
The primary data in this experiment consisted of questionnaire responses
given by participants. Table 1 shows the number of people with tattoos,
piercings, or both. A two-way ANOVA was used to find whether one’s
self-rating of spiritual, religious, both, or neither had any main effect
on the number of tattoos or piercings one had. There was no significant
difference shown. Table 2 shows the number of people with tattoos
or piercings that described themselves as spiritual, religious, both, or
neither.
A two-way ANOVA was also used to find whether participants having tattoos and/or body piercings had any main effect on their scores extrinsic or intrinsic religious orientation. While there was no statistical significance, a slight trend was shown: individuals with tattoos and/or piercings scored higher on the intrinsic scale (M = 3.08, SD = .48), than on the extrinsic scale (M = 2.44, SD = .61) with F(1, 28) = 2.92, p = .098.
A chi-squared test was run on whether or not participants professed
to have practiced any religion and whether or not they had tattoos.
Those not having tattoos were more likely to practice a religion, with
X2 (1, N = 35) = 7.20, p < .05. (See Figure 1.) Another chi-square
also found that individuals who professed Christianity as their religion
were more likely not to have tattoos, with X2 (1, N = 35) = 14.95, p <
.0001, than those that did not profess Christianity as their religion.
(See Figure 2.)
A two-way ANOVA was used to find whether non-mainstream body
modification had any main effect on the number of tattoos or piercings
one had. No significance was shown for the number of tattoos, with
the mean of those having tattoos being 4.20 (SD = 8.29), the mean of those
not having tattoos being 3.87 (SD = .48), and F(1, 34) = .009, p = ns.
There was a significant main effect shown for the number of piercings,
with the mean of those having piercings being 8.00 (SD = 8.34), the mean
of those not having piercings being 1.45 (SD = 1.61), and F(1, 34) = 17.65,
p < .0001. Non-mainstream body modification was related to a greater
number of piercings. Religiosity and spirituality were not found
to have an effect on non-mainstream body modification.
While the true experimental variables in this study were the location at which the participants were approached (places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are more likely to be found, and places where people who have piercings and/or tattoos are less likely to be found) and the researcher’s appearance (with or without a fake nose-ring), neither of these had any significant effect on individuals’ willingness to participate in the study. Forty-one questionnaires were completed, and only an additional two were refused. However the two individuals that refused were at a place where individuals with tattoos and/or piercings are less likely to be found. Both were refused while the researcher was wearing a fake nose-ring.
Discussion
The first hypothesis of this study, that individuals that participate in body modification are more likely to be spiritual than religious, was not supported. There was no significance found between the number of tattoos or piercings and individuals’ self-report of being spiritual or religious. Perhaps this is because a number of individuals with tattoos and/or piercings actually did not profess to be religious or spiritual. It was found however, that individuals with tattoos scored slightly higher on measures of intrinsic religiosity than on measures of extrinsic religiosity.
This finding does not necessarily mean that individuals with tattoos are more spiritual than religious, however, because both the extrinsic and intrinsic measures of the Religious Orientation Scale were intended to measure religion, not spirituality. While there was a single item that inquired about participants’ view of themselves in terms of religiosity and spirituality, there was no separate scale included that was intended to measure spirituality alone. This should be improved upon in future research.
Secondly, it was also hypothesized that individuals that participate in tattooing and body piercing are more likely to participate in forms of body modification that are even less mainstream, but that this participation in less mainstream forms of body modification would correlate negatively with both religiosity and spirituality. While there was no significant relationship found between nonmainstream body modification and tattooing, there was a significant relationship found between nonmainstream body modification and piercing. A greater relationship exists here, possibly because the intrusiveness of these two procedures is more similar. Tattooing does involve needles and insertion into the skin, but the surface and texture of the skin, in the end, appears to be unchanged. Both piercing and nonmainstream body modification involves causing indentations into the skin.
There was no main effect of religiosity/spirituality on nonmainstream body modification, nor was there any interaction between religiosity/spirituality and the number of tattoos or piercings. Therefore the second part of this hypothesis was not supported.
Finally it was predicted that individuals would be more accepting of others that look similar to themselves, but that this would correlate negatively with both religiosity and spirituality. There was not enough data gathered in regards to this hypothesis to run powerful statistical tests on it, as only 2 packets were refused. However, the two individuals that refused were approached at a place where individuals with tattoos and/or piercings are less likely to be found. Both were refused while the researcher was wearing a fake nose-ring.
Most individuals stated multiple reasons for getting tattooed or pierced. While religious reasons were not cited for piercings, they were cited for tattoos by several participants. Individuals also stated that they participated in body modification to honor others, for attractiveness, for shock value, and for other reasons. This represents the “multivocality” that was stated by Victor Turner (1976, as cited in Myers, 1992), which refers to the belief that any “complex or dominant symbol may stand for many things.”
There were several limitations to this study, one of which is that all of the measures relied on self-report. Therefore individuals might have provided answers to certain items that seemed more socially acceptable than other answers. In addition, most of the data gathered were nominal. For this reason, there were limited types of analyses that could be run.
While in this study, nipple and genital piercings were listed among mainstream body-piercings, they are considered by some to be nonmainstream. Myers (1992) listed these among such nonmainsteam forms of body modification as branding, burning, and cutting. If, in this study, nipple and genital piercings were listed as nonmainstream, the results might have differed from their current standing. A possible further inadequacy is that ear piercing was listed among items such as tongue and navel piercing. Perhaps, ear piercing should not have been listed due to the commonality of this type of body modification.
An relationship on which future research should focus is that between tattoos/piercings and health. Since it was found that those without tattoos are more likely to practice a religion, it could be said that those with tattoos are less likely to practice a religion. Past research has shown that the practice of a religion leads to better health, so it might be inferred that those with tattoos are less likely to have good health (Thoresen, 2001). Future research should also look further into the relationship between tattoos and piercings and more nonmainstream forms of body modification, as well as into the relationship between these nonmainstream forms and self-mutilation and/or suicide.
Bell, S. (1999). Tattooed: A participant observer’s exploration
of meaning. Journal of American Culture, 22, 53-58.
Ceniceros, S., Brown, G.R., & Swartz, C. (1998). Neurology
& psychiatry. Southern Medical Journal, 91, S52-S54.
Dhossche, D., Snell, K.S., & S.L. (1999). A case-study
of tattoos in young suicide victims as a possible marker of risk.
Journal of Affective Disorders, 59, 165-168.
Drews, D.R., Allison, C.K., & Probst, J.R. (2000).
Behavioral and self-concept differences in tattooed and nontattooed college
students. Psychological Reports, 86, 475-481.
Greif, J., & Hewitt, W. (1999). Tattooing and body piercing. Clinical Nursing Research, 8, 368-385.
Hill, P.C., Pargament, K.I., Swyers, J.P., Gorsuch, R.L., McCullough, M.E., Hood, R.W., & Baumeister, R.F. (1998). Definitions of religion and spirituality. In Larson, D.B., J.P. Swyers, M.E. McCullough (Eds.), Scientific research on spirituality and health (pp. 14-30). Rockville, MD: National Institute for Healthcare Research.
Liotard, P. (2001). The body jigsaw. UNESCO Courier, 22-24.
Myers, J. (1992). Nonmainstream body modification: genital piercing, branding, burning, and cutting. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 21, 267-305.
The National Opinion Research Center. General Social Survey, 1972-
2000. Retrieved October 3, 2001, from http:// www. icpsr.umich.edu/GSS/
Plante, T.G., & Boccaccini, M.T. (1997). The Santa Clara
strength of religious faith questionnaire. Pastoral Psychology, 45,
375-387.
Strong, M. (1998). A bright red scream: Self-mutilation and the language of pain. New York: Viking.
Thoresen, C.E., Harris, A. H. S., & Oman, D. (2001). Spirituality, religion, and health. In T.G. Plante & A.C. Sherman (Eds.), Faith and Health: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 15-52). New York, NY: Guilford Publications
Weir, E. (2001). Navel gazing: A clinical glimpse at body piercing. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 164, 864-866.
Appendix A
Script
Hi, my name is Micah Martin and I am a senior at Samford University. I am currently researching Body Modification and its relation to Religiosity and Spirituality. If you could take 10-15 minutes to complete a questionnaire for me, I would greatly appreciate it; in doing so you will help me to complete my research as well as a class that is necessary to graduate.
As the title might suggest, this questionnaire includes questions about tattoos and piercings, and religion and spirituality. Please take the time to read and answer each question carefully and honestly. Past research has focused a great deal on individuals’ motivation for participating in body modification, but little has focused on the current topic.
Before you begin, please give your written consent to participating
in this study by signing this form…Do you have any questions? You may begin.
Appendix B
Consent Form
The research project in which you are about to participate is sponsored
by the Department of Psychology of Samford University and is under the
supervision of Dr. Sandra Willis. It is conducted by Micah Martin
and involves questionnaires regarding body-modification, spirituality,
and religiosity. It will take approximately 20 minutes to complete
the questionnaires. Participation in this research is optional and
completely voluntary, and you may withdraw from this study at any time
and for any reason. The researcher assures confidentiality of your
individual results. You may receive a copy of this consent form upon
request, as well as the final results of the study by contacting the researcher
or supervising professor, as listed below. You may ask any questions
you might have about the study now or in the future. By signing below
you are agreeing to the terms and conditions of this study, as well as
to answering items on the questionnaire honestly and to the best of your
ability. Thank you for your participation.
Participant Signature:______________________________
Researcher Signature:______________________________
Micah Martin
mimartin@ samford.edu
Appendix C
Questionnaire on Body Modification and its Relation to Religiosity and Spirituality
Age:___ Gender:__male __female Race/Ethnicity:_____________________________
Section 1: Tattoos
1. Do you currently have any tattoos? __yes ___no
If so, how many?______
2. Have you, in the past, had any tattoos that you have since
removed? ___yes ___no
If so, how many?______
Please describe reason(s) for removal: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Where are (were) your tattoos located? (Check as many
as applicable.)
___N/A
___lower back ___upper leg
___upper back or shoulder ___buttocks
___neck ___calf
___upper arm ___ankle
___forearm ___chest
___hand ___stomach
___other (please specify):_____________________________
4. If applicable, how old were you when you received your tattoos?
(List as many different ages as necessary.)
__________________________________________________
5. If applicable, where you in ___high school or ___college when you received your first tattoo? (Please check one.)
6. For what reasons did you get your tattoos? (Check as
many as applicable.)
___N/A
___identification with a particular group or subculture
___to honor an individual or individuals (family members, friends,
lover, etc.)
___display of religious spiritual beliefs
___ sexual enhancement
___attractiveness
___testing of your own ability to withstand pain
___shock value / separation from mainstream culture
___to get attention
___other (please specify):______________________________
7. If you have never had any tattoos, how likely is it that you
will get one?
___N/A
___very likely
___somewhat likely
___have not given it much thought
___somewhat unlikely
___very unlikely
8. If you have never had any tattoos, but might possibly consider
getting one in the future, where would you get it?
___N/A
___lower back ___upper leg
___upper back or shoulder ___buttocks
___neck ___calf
___upper arm ___ankle
___forearm ___chest
___hand ___stomach
___other (please specify):_____________________________
9. If you have never had any tattoos, but might possibly consider
getting one in the future, for what reasons might you get it?
___N/A
___identification with a particular group or subculture
___to honor an individual or individuals (family members, friends,
lover, etc.)
___display of religious spiritual beliefs
___ sexual enhancement
___attractiveness
___testing of your own ability to withstand pain
___shock value / separation from mainstream culture
___to get attention
___other (please specify):______________________________
10. Do you regret getting any or all or your tattoos?
___N/A
___yes ___no
Section 2: Body Piercings
11. Do you currently have any body piercing(s)? __yes ___no
If so, how many? (Please count each set of earrings as one piercing. Please also count any earring that does not have a match on the other ear as one piercing.) __________
12. Have you in the past had any piercing(s) that you have since
removed? ___yes ___no
If so, how many?______
Please describe reason(s) for removal: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13. Where are (were) your piercing(s) located? (Check as
many as applicable.)
___N/A
___ear lobe(s)
___other part ear (please specify):______________________
___eyebrow
___nose
___tongue
___lip
___labret
___cheek
___nipple
___navel
___genitalia
14. How old were you when you received your piercing(s)? (List as many
different ages as necessary.)
__________________________________________________
15. For what reasons did you get your piercing(s) (check as many
as applicable)?
___identification with a particular group or subculture
___to honor an individual or individuals (family members, friends,
lover, etc.)
___display of religious spiritual beliefs
___ sexual enhancement
___attractiveness
___testing of your own ability to withstand pain
___shock value / separation from mainstream culture
___to get attention
___other (please specify):______________________________
16. If you have never had any piercing(s), how likely is it that
you will get one?
___N/A
___very likely
___somewhat likely
___have not given it much thought
___somewhat unlikely
___very unlikely
17. If you have never had any piercing(s), but might possibly
consider getting one in the future, where would you get it?
___ear lobe(s)
___other part ear (please specify):______________________
___eyebrow
___nose
___tongue
___lip
___labret
___cheek
___nipple
___navel
___genitalia
18. If you have never had any piercing(s), but might possibly
consider getting one in the future, for what reasons might you get it?
___identification with a particular group or subculture
___to honor an individual or individuals (family members, friends,
lover, etc.)
___display of religious spiritual beliefs
___ sexual enhancement
___attractiveness
___testing of your own ability to withstand pain
___shock value / separation from mainstream culture
___to get attention
___other (please specify):______________________________
19. Do you regret getting any or all or your piercing(s)?
___N/A ___yes ___no
20. Have you ever engaged in other forms of body modification,
such as cutting, branding, or scarring?
___yes ___no
If yes, please specify:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
21. If you have never engaged in other forms of body modification,
such as those listed above, how likely is it that you will in the future?
___N/A
___very likely
___somewhat likely
___have not given it much thought
___somewhat unlikely
___very unlikely
Section 3: Religiosity and Spirituality
A. Please read carefully the following definitions and answer the questions that follow.
Spirituality is the feelings thoughts, experiences, and behaviors that
arise from a search for the sacred. (The term search refers to attempts
to identify, articulate, maintain, or transform. The sacred refers
to a divine being or Ultimate Reality or Ultimate Truth as perceived by
the individual.)
Religiousness INCLUDES THE ABOVE and/or a search or quest for non-sacred
goals (such as identity, belongingness, meaning, health, or wellness).
It also includes the means and methods (e.g. rituals or prescribed behaviors)
of the search that receive validation and support from within an identifiable
group of people (e.g. a church, synagogue, mosque, sect, cult, etc.)
22. Having read the above definitions, do you consider yourself
(check one)
___spiritual?
___religious?
___both?
___neither?
23. What is your religious preference (check one)?
___Christianity
___Judaism
___Buddhism
___Hinduism
___Other Eastern
___Moslem/Islam
___New Age
___Native American
___Don’t know
___None
___Other (please specify):________________________________________
24. If you marked Christianity, please specify denominational
preference:
---___BAPTIST American Baptist Association
___American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A.
___National Baptist Convention of America
___National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc
___Southern Baptist Convention
___Other Baptist Churches
___Baptist, Don’t know which
___METHODIST African Methodist Episcopal Church
___African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
___United Methodist Church
___Other Methodist Churches
___Methodist, Don’t know which
___LUTHERAN American Lutheran Church
___Lutheran Church in America
___Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod
___Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod
___Other Lutheran Churches
___Evangelical Lutheran
___Lutheran, Don’t know which
___PRESBYTERIAN Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.
___United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.
___Other Presbyterian Churches
___Presbyterian, Don’t know which
___EPISCOPAL CHURCH
___Other (Specify)
___NO DENOMINATION GIVEN OR NON-DENOMINATIONAL CHURCH
___Don’t know
___N/A
25.How often do you attend religious services?
___Never
___Less than once a year
___About once or twice a year
___Several times a year
___About once a month
___2-3 times a month
___Nearly every week
___Every week
___Several times a week
___Don’t know
26.In relation to your religion, do you consider yourself (check one):
___Fundamentalist
___Moderate
___Liberal
___Don’t know
___N/A
B.. Please answer the following questions about religious faith using the scale below. Indicate YOUR level of agreement or disagreement with each statement.
1
2 3
4
5
strongly disagree
disagree neutral
agree
strongly agree
___1. My religious faith is extremely important to me.
___2. I pray daily.
___3. I look to my faith as a source of inspiration.
___4. I look to my faith as providing meaning and purpose in
my life.
___5. I consider myself active in my faith or church.
___6. My faith is an important part of who I am as a person.
___7. My relationship with God is extremely important to me.
___8. I enjoy being around others who share my faith.
___9. I look to my faith as a source of comfort.
___10. My faith impacts many of my decisions.
C. The following items deal with various religious and spiritual matters.
Please indicate the response you prefer, or most closely agree with using
the scales below.
1 = I definitely disagree
2 = I tend to disagree
3 = I tend to agree
4 = I definitely agree
___What religion offers me most is comfort when sorrows and misfortune
strike.
___One reason for my being a church member is that such membership
helps to establish a person in the community.
___The purpose of prayer is to secure a happy and peaceful life.
___It doesn’t matter so much what I believe so long as I lead a moral
life.
___Although I am a religious person I refuse to let religious considerations
influence my everyday affairs.
___The church is most important as a place to formulate good social
relationships.
___Although I believe in my religion, I feel there are many more important
things in life.
___A primary reason for my interest in religion is that my church is
a congenial social activity.
___Occasionally I find it necessary to compromise my religious beliefs
in order to protect my social and economic well-being.
___I try hard to carry my religion over into all my other dealings
in life.
___Quite often I have been keenly aware of the presence of God or the
Divine Being.
___My religious beliefs are what really lie behind my whole approach
to life.
___The prayers I say when I am alone carry as much meaning and personal
emotion as those said by me during services.
___Religion is especially important to me because it answers many questions
about the meaning of life.
1 = I definitely agree.
2 = I tend to agree.
3 = I tend to disagree.
4 = I definitely disagree.
___I pray chiefly because I have been taught to pray.
___The primary purpose of prayer is to gain relief and protection.
___If I were to join a church group I would rather join a Bible Study
than a social fellowship.
1 = Frequently true
2 = Occasionally true
3 = Rarely true
4 = Never true
___I read literature about my faith (or church).
___It is important to me to spend periods of time in private religious
thought or meditation.
1 = More than once a week
2 = About once a week
3 = Two or three times a month
4 = Less than once a month
___If not prevented by unavoidable circumstances, I attend church.
This is the end of the questionnaire. You have been an integral part of this study. Your participation is much appreciated. If you are interested in the results of this study or any other further information, you may contact the researcher at mimartin @Samford.edu
Thank you
Frequency Percent
Number of individuals with: tattoos 18 42.9
piercings 29 69.0
tattoos and/or piercings 34 81.0
both 13 31.0
Number of Individuals with Tattoos and/or Piercings by Self-Rating of
Religiosity/Spirituality
Self-Rating of Religiosity/Spirituality
spiritual religious both neither Total
Have tattoos/piercings 15 3 10 5 33
No tattoos/piercings 2 1 3 1 7
Total 17 4 13
6 40
Note. One individual did not give a self-rating of religiosity/spirituality.
---------------------------------
Figure Caption
Figure 1. Frequencies of religious and non-religious individuals
with and without tattoos.
Figure Caption
Figure 2. Frequencies of Christian and non-Christian individuals
with and without tattoos.